Updated July 17, 2026

Best Information Security Master's Degree Programs 2026

Compare 287 accredited information security master's degree programs using data from IPEDS 2024 and BLS 2024. Our rankings analyze graduation rates, tuition costs, NSA certification, and cybersecurity career outcomes.

Programs Ranked:287
Median Tuition:$18,750/yr
Avg Graduation Rate:82%
Median Starting Salary:$95,000
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Key Takeaways

  • 1.Security analysts earn a median salary of $120,360 with 32% projected job growth through 2032 (BLS OES 2024)
  • 2.Top-ranked Information Security programs include Carnegie Mellon University, University of Southern California, Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus based on graduation rates, program strength, and career outcomes
  • 3.Best value: Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus offers information security education at $10,258/year with 76% graduation rate
  • 4.50 accredited Information Security programs analyzed using IPEDS 2024 completion data

Best Information Security Programs - Top 10 Master's

🥇

Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Atlanta, GAPublic

$129,180 median salary · 94% graduation rate

95.9
Score
$11K
Tuition/yr
94%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 94% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $10,512 in-state tuition
  • 297 graduates annually
🥈

Johns Hopkins University

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Baltimore, MDPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 94% graduation rate

95.1
Score
$65K
Tuition/yr
94%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 94% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $64,730 in-state tuition
  • 85 graduates annually
🥉

New York University

Master's in Information SecurityFully online
New York, NYPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 88% graduation rate

95.1
Score
$63K
Tuition/yr
88%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 88% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $62,796 in-state tuition
  • 252 graduates annually
#4

Northeastern University

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Boston, MAPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 91% graduation rate

94.5
Score
$65K
Tuition/yr
91%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 91% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $64,990 in-state tuition
  • 78 graduates annually
#5

University of Southern California

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Los Angeles, CAPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 92% graduation rate

94.0
Score
$70K
Tuition/yr
92%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 92% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $69,904 in-state tuition
  • 37 graduates annually
#6

Carnegie Mellon University

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Pittsburgh, PAPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 94% graduation rate

93.7
Score
$65K
Tuition/yr
94%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 94% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $64,596 in-state tuition
  • 108 graduates annually
#7

The University of Texas at Austin

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Austin, TXPublic

$129,180 median salary · 89% graduation rate

93.5
Score
$12K
Tuition/yr
89%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 89% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $11,688 in-state tuition
  • 28 graduates annually
#8

Georgetown University

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Washington, DCPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 95% graduation rate

93.4
Score
$68K
Tuition/yr
95%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 95% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $67,896 in-state tuition
  • 65 graduates annually
#9

Brown University

Master's in Information SecurityFully online
Providence, RIPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 96% graduation rate

92.7
Score
$69K
Tuition/yr
96%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 96% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $68,612 in-state tuition
  • 21 graduates annually
#10

Harvard University

Master's in Information SecurityOn-campus
Cambridge, MAPrivate nonprofit

$129,180 median salary · 98% graduation rate

92.3
Score
$57K
Tuition/yr
98%
Grad Rate
$129K
Median Salary
Visit
program page

Program Strengths

  • 98% graduation rate
  • $129,180 median salary
  • $56,550 in-state tuition
  • 1 graduates annually

Best Information Security Programs - Top 10 Master's, Complete Program Data

  1. #1. Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus's master's information security program #1. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Atlanta, GA | Type: Public | Tuition: $10,512/year | Graduation Rate: 94% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 95.9

  2. #2. Johns Hopkins University — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Johns Hopkins University's master's information security program #2. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Baltimore, MD | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $64,730/year | Graduation Rate: 94% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 95.1

  3. #3. New York University — Master's Information Security (Online)

    Hakia ranks New York University's online master's information security program #3. Degree: Master's. Delivery: fully online. Location: New York, NY | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $62,796/year | Graduation Rate: 88% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 95.1

  4. #4. Northeastern University — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Northeastern University's master's information security program #4. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Boston, MA | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $64,990/year | Graduation Rate: 91% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 94.5

  5. #5. University of Southern California — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks University of Southern California's master's information security program #5. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Los Angeles, CA | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $69,904/year | Graduation Rate: 92% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 94.0

  6. #6. Carnegie Mellon University — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Carnegie Mellon University's master's information security program #6. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Pittsburgh, PA | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $64,596/year | Graduation Rate: 94% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 93.7

  7. #7. The University of Texas at Austin — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks The University of Texas at Austin's master's information security program #7. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Austin, TX | Type: Public | Tuition: $11,688/year | Graduation Rate: 89% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 93.5

  8. #8. Georgetown University — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Georgetown University's master's information security program #8. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Washington, DC | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $67,896/year | Graduation Rate: 95% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 93.4

  9. #9. Brown University — Master's Information Security (Online)

    Hakia ranks Brown University's online master's information security program #9. Degree: Master's. Delivery: fully online. Location: Providence, RI | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $68,612/year | Graduation Rate: 96% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 92.7

  10. #10. Harvard University — Master's Information Security

    Hakia ranks Harvard University's master's information security program #10. Degree: Master's. Delivery: on-campus. Location: Cambridge, MA | Type: Private nonprofit | Tuition: $56,550/year | Graduation Rate: 98% | Median Salary: $129,180 | Score: 92.3

Best Information Security Programs - Compare Top 5 Master's

SchoolLocationTypeTuitionGrad RateScore
#1 Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA
Private
$62,260
98%
90.1/100
#2 University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA
Private
$66,640
92%
74.1/100
#3 Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus
Atlanta, GA
Public
$10,258
76%
73.5/100
#4 Georgetown University
Washington, DC
Private
$64,896
1%
72.4/100
#5 New York University
New York, NY
Private
$60,438
N/A
72.3/100

Data from IPEDS 2024. Tuition shown is in-state for public schools.

Top 50 Information Security Master's Programs 2026

RankProgram & SchoolDeliveryAnnual TuitionGrad RateMedian SalaryHakia Score
#1
Master's in Information Security
Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus
Atlanta, GA · Public
On-campus$10,51294%$129,18095.9
#2
Master's in Information Security
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, MD · Private nonprofit
On-campus$64,73094%$129,18095.1
#3
Master's in Information Security
New York University
New York, NY · Private nonprofit
Online$62,79688%$129,18095.1
#4
Master's in Information Security
Northeastern University
Boston, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$64,99091%$129,18094.5
#5
Master's in Information Security
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$69,90492%$129,18094.0
#6
Master's in Information Security
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$64,59694%$129,18093.7
#7
Master's in Information Security
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX · Public
On-campus$11,68889%$129,18093.5
#8
Master's in Information Security
Georgetown University
Washington, DC · Private nonprofit
On-campus$67,89695%$129,18093.4
#9
Master's in Information Security
Brown University
Providence, RI · Private nonprofit
Online$68,61296%$129,18092.7
#10
Master's in Information Security
Harvard University
Cambridge, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$56,55098%$129,18092.3
#11
Master's in Information Security
Washington University in St Louis
St. Louis, MO · Private nonprofit
On-campus$64,50094%$129,18091.4
#12
Master's in Information Security
University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL · Public
On-campus$4,47878%$129,18091.3
#13
Master's in Information Security
Boston College
Chestnut Hill, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$69,40091%$129,18091.3
#14
Master's in Information Security
George Washington University
Washington, DC · Private nonprofit
On-campus$67,42084%$129,18091.2
#15
Master's in Information Security
San Diego State University
San Diego, CA · Public
On-campus$6,08476%$129,18090.8
#16
Master's in Information Security
University of Georgia
Athens, GA · Public
On-campus$10,03490%$129,18090.8
#17
Master's in Information Security
Boston University
Boston, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$66,67089%$129,18090.6
#18
Master's in Information Security
Tufts University
Medford, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$69,14694%$129,18090.5
#19
Master's in Information Security
Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY · Private nonprofit
On-campus$63,71084%$129,18090.1
#20
Master's in Information Security
Tulane University of Louisiana
New Orleans, LA · Private nonprofit
Online$64,37286%$129,18089.7
#21
Master's in Information Security
Pennsylvania State University-Main Campus
University Park, PA · Public
On-campus$20,06686%$129,18089.5
#22
Master's in Information Security
Auburn University
Auburn, AL · Public
Online$11,01682%$129,18089.3
#23
Master's in Information Security
Fordham University
Bronx, NY · Private nonprofit
On-campus$62,99082%$129,18088.3
#24
Master's in Information Security
The University of Texas at Dallas
Richardson, TX · Public
On-campus$10,63976%$129,18087.9
#25
Master's in Information Security
University of San Diego
San Diego, CA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$58,42084%$129,18087.7
#26
Master's in Information Security
Florida International University
Miami, FL · Public
On-campus$4,72174%$129,18087.7
#27
Master's in Information Security
Yeshiva University
New York, NY · Private nonprofit
Online$47,15083%$129,18087.4
#28
Master's in Information Security
University of Delaware
Newark, DE · Public
On-campus$14,60081%$129,18086.5
#29
Master's in Information Security
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark, NJ · Public
Online$16,33473%$129,18086.3
#30
Master's in Information Security
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, TX · Private nonprofit
Online$59,50084%$129,18086.3
#31
Master's in Information Security
Rochester Institute of Technology
Rochester, NY · Private nonprofit
On-campus$58,26070%$129,18085.9
#32
Master's in Information Security
Fairfield University
Fairfield, CT · Private nonprofit
On-campus$57,45084%$129,18085.6
#33
Master's in Information Security
Illinois Institute of Technology
Chicago, IL · Private nonprofit
On-campus$50,63675%$129,18085.1
#34
Master's in Information Security
The University of Tampa
Tampa, FL · Private nonprofit
On-campus$32,09664%$129,18084.6
#35
Master's in Information Security
University of Tulsa
Tulsa, OK · Private nonprofit
Online$48,34072%$129,18084.0
#36
Master's in Information Security
Indiana University-Bloomington
Bloomington, IN · Public
On-campus$10,62280%$129,18083.7
#37
Master's in Information Security
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Worcester, MA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$59,70090%$129,18083.6
#38
Master's in Information Security
University of Houston
Houston, TX · Public
On-campus$8,68565%$129,18083.6
#39
Master's in Information Security
Drexel University
Philadelphia, PA · Private nonprofit
On-campus$60,04278%$129,18083.5
#40
Master's in Information Security
University at Albany
Albany, NY · Public
On-campus$7,07061%$129,18083.2
#41
Master's in Information Security
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Charlotte, NC · Public
On-campus$3,81269%$129,18083.0
#42
Master's in Information Security
Hallmark University
San Antonio, TX · Private nonprofit
Online66%$129,18083.0
#43
Master's in Information Security
University of Dallas
Irving, TX · Private nonprofit
Online$50,14073%$129,18082.6
#44
Master's in Information Security
Strayer University-Florida
Tampa, FL · Private for-profit
Online$13,725100%$129,18082.3
#45
Master's in Information Security
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, AL · Public
On-campus$10,37464%$129,18082.1
#46
Master's in Information Security
Temple University
Philadelphia, PA · Public
On-campus$21,98975%$129,18082.1
#47
Master's in Information Security
American Public University System
Charles Town, WV · Private for-profit
Online$8,40057%$129,18081.9
#48
Master's in Information Security
University of West Florida
Pensacola, FL · Public
On-campus$3,73559%$129,18081.2
#49
Master's in Information Security
DePaul University
Chicago, IL · Private nonprofit
On-campus$44,60168%$129,18081.2
#50
Master's in Information Security
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI · Public
Online$14,63073%$129,18081.1

Showing all 50 ranked programs.

Information Security Master's Programs Overview: High-Growth Field with Excellent ROI

Information security master's programs prepare students for leadership roles in cybersecurity careers that are experiencing unprecedented demand. The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects 35% growth for information security analysts through 2032, making it one of the fastest-growing occupations in the United States.

Data from 287 accredited programs shows strong career outcomes across all institution types. Public universities offer exceptional value, with programs like Georgia Tech's cybersecurity master's providing education at $15,852/year for in-state students. Private institutions like Carnegie Mellon command premium tuition but deliver unmatched industry connections and research opportunities.

The field has evolved significantly with the rise of AI and machine learning in cybersecurity, creating new specializations in areas like threat intelligence, cloud security, and IoT protection. Modern programs emphasize hands-on learning through security certification paths and real-world incident response scenarios.

$95,000
Starting Salary
$155,000
Mid-Career
+35%
Job Growth
16,800
Annual Openings

Career Paths

Cybersecurity Manager

+0.28%

Leads cybersecurity teams, develops security strategies, and manages incident response. Common progression from analyst roles.

Median Salary:$145,000

Security Architect

+0.32%

Designs and implements enterprise security infrastructure. Requires deep technical knowledge and systems thinking.

Median Salary:$165,000

Penetration Tester (Ethical Hacker)

+0.4%

Tests systems for vulnerabilities by simulating cyber attacks. Highly technical role requiring continuous skill development.

Median Salary:$125,000

Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)

+0.25%

Executive responsible for organization's entire cybersecurity strategy. Requires master's degree and 10+ years experience.

Median Salary:$285,000

Security Consultant

+0.38%

Provides cybersecurity expertise to multiple organizations. Often work independently or for consulting firms.

Median Salary:$135,000

Incident Response Specialist

+0.42%

Responds to and investigates cybersecurity incidents. Critical role in minimizing damage from breaches.

Median Salary:$118,000

Compliance Manager

+0.3%

Ensures organizations meet cybersecurity regulations and standards. Growing field due to increasing regulations.

Median Salary:$108,000

Top States for Information Security Master's Programs

Funding Your Information Security Master's Degree: Scholarships and Financial Aid Options

Information security master's programs offer numerous funding opportunities, reflecting the field's critical importance to national security and economic competitiveness. Many students receive full or partial funding through employer tuition reimbursement, government programs, and cybersecurity-specific scholarships.

Federal agencies like NSA and DHS offer competitive scholarship programs for cybersecurity students. The CyberCorps Scholarship for Service provides full tuition, stipends, and guaranteed government employment after graduation. Private organizations including ISC2, SANS, and major technology companies also provide substantial scholarships.

  • NSA CyberCorps Scholarship for Service - Full tuition plus $25,000-$34,000 annual stipend
  • SANS Foundation Scholarships - Multiple awards ranging from $2,500-$10,000
  • ISC2 Graduate Scholarship Program - Up to $5,000 for graduate students
  • Women in Cybersecurity (WiCyS) Scholarships - Various amounts for underrepresented groups
  • Corporate programs from IBM, Microsoft, Cisco, and other major employers

Choose Your Information Security Master's Program

Elite Private Programs (Carnegie Mellon, Stanford)

  • Seeking maximum prestige and industry connections
  • Targeting top-tier consulting or tech company roles
  • Interested in advanced research opportunities
  • Comfortable with premium tuition costs ($55,000+/year)

Top Public Programs (Georgia Tech, University of Maryland, UC Berkeley)

  • Want excellent education at affordable cost
  • Qualify for in-state tuition benefits
  • Seeking NSA CAE-designated programs
  • Interested in government or defense contractor careers

Online Programs (Penn State World Campus, Arizona State, UMGC)

  • Currently working full-time in cybersecurity
  • Need maximum scheduling flexibility
  • Want to minimize education costs
  • Prefer self-paced learning environments

Regional Programs (Local State Universities)

  • Planning to work in specific geographic region
  • Value smaller class sizes and personal attention
  • Want to minimize living costs and student debt
  • Interested in local industry partnerships

Frequently Asked Questions: Information Security Master's Programs

What's the average salary for information security master's graduates?
Information security master's graduates earn a median starting salary of $95,000, according to our analysis of BLS 2024 data and institutional reporting. Salaries range from $75,000 at smaller organizations to $135,000+ at major tech companies and consulting firms. Mid-career professionals with master's degrees earn median salaries of $155,000, with CISOs and senior executives earning $200,000-$400,000+.
How long does it take to complete an information security master's degree?
Most information security master's programs require 2 years of full-time study or 30-36 credit hours. Part-time programs take 2.5-3 years to complete, allowing working professionals to maintain their careers while studying. Accelerated programs may be completed in 12-18 months with intensive coursework and summer sessions.
Do I need a technical undergraduate degree for cybersecurity master's programs?
While many programs prefer computer science or engineering backgrounds, most accept students from diverse academic disciplines. Many programs offer prerequisite courses or foundational modules for students without technical backgrounds. Business, criminal justice, and liberal arts majors can successfully transition into cybersecurity with appropriate preparation and motivation.
What's NSA Center of Academic Excellence (CAE) designation and why does it matter?
NSA CAE designation indicates that a program meets rigorous cybersecurity education standards set by the National Security Agency. CAE-CD (Cyber Defense) programs focus on protecting systems, while CAE-R (Research) emphasizes advanced research. These designations provide credibility with employers, especially government agencies and defense contractors, and may help security clearance processes.
Are online information security master's programs as good as on-campus programs?
Top online programs like Georgia Tech and Penn State World Campus deliver education quality comparable to on-campus programs. Online formats often provide better flexibility for working professionals and may include virtual labs and simulation environments. However, networking opportunities and hands-on lab experiences may be more limited. Choose based on your learning style and career stage.
What cybersecurity specializations are available in master's programs?
Common specializations include digital forensics, penetration testing, risk management, incident response, cloud security, and cyber policy. Emerging areas include AI security, IoT protection, and blockchain security. Choose specializations based on career interests and market demand in your target geographic region.
How important are cybersecurity certifications compared to master's degrees?
Both have value but serve different purposes. Certifications like CISSP, CEH, and Security+ demonstrate specific technical competencies and may be required for certain positions. Master's degrees provide broader knowledge, leadership preparation, and are often required for senior roles. Many professionals pursue both, using certifications for immediate career benefits while completing degrees for long-term advancement.
What's the job outlook for cybersecurity professionals with master's degrees?
The job outlook is exceptional, with BLS projecting 35% growth for information security analysts through 2032 - much faster than average for all occupations. Master's degree holders are particularly well-positioned for management and strategic roles as organizations expand their cybersecurity teams. The global cybersecurity skills shortage ensures strong demand for qualified professionals.
How much does an information security master's degree cost?
Costs vary significantly by institution type. Public universities average $14,200/year for in-state students and $28,600 for out-of-state. Private programs range from $25,000-$65,000 annually. Total program costs range from $25,000-$120,000. Consider financial aid, employer tuition reimbursement, and cybersecurity-specific scholarships when calculating actual costs.
What should I look for when choosing an information security master's program?
Key factors include NSA CAE designation, faculty industry experience, hands-on lab opportunities, industry partnerships, alumni networks, and career services quality. Consider your career goals: government/defense positions benefit from CAE programs, while tech industry roles may prioritize innovation and research opportunities. Location, cost, and format (online vs. on-campus) should align with your circumstances.

How We Rank Information Security Degree Programs

Based on 742 programs from IPEDS 2024

We scored 50 master's information security programs on the Hakia Score, a 0 to 100 composite drawn from federal IPEDS 2024 and BLS figures, and Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus's Master's in Information Security sits at the top. Graduates step into a field where the median wage runs about $129,180.

Ranking Factors

Program Completions35%

Number of graduates per year in this specific field (CIP code). Larger programs indicate established departments with more resources, course offerings, and career services. Measured from IPEDS Completions data.

Graduation Rate25%

Percentage of students completing their degree within 150% of expected time (6 years for bachelor's, 3 years for associate's). Higher rates indicate better student support and program quality. Source: IPEDS Graduation Rates survey.

Selectivity20%

Admission rate (lower = more selective). More selective institutions have stronger academic environments and more competitive graduates. For open-admission institutions, we use graduation rates as a proxy for quality.

Career Outcomes20%

National salary data for information security graduates, factored into institutional scores based on job market strength.

Ranking Categories

Best Programs

Overall quality using all four factors weighted as shown above. Ideal for students seeking the strongest academic experience.

Online Programs

Same methodology, filtered to schools with fully online or hybrid options (IPEDS Distance Education data). Some schools may have lower graduation rates due to different student demographics.

Most Affordable

Ranked primarily by net cost (tuition minus average institutional aid), with quality factors as tiebreakers. Best for cost-conscious students.

Data Sources

  • IPEDS 2024Institutional characteristics, completions, graduation rates
  • BLS OEWS 2024National and metro salary data by occupation
  • CIP Code MappingPrograms identified using Classification of Instructional Programs codes

Data Sources and Methodology

Federal database providing institutional characteristics, enrollment, graduation rates, and tuition data for all accredited institutions

Comprehensive salary and employment data for information security analysts (SOC 15-1212) and related occupations

Designation database for cybersecurity education programs meeting NSA standards for curriculum and faculty qualifications

National framework defining cybersecurity roles, skills, and knowledge areas used to evaluate program curricula

Taylor Rupe

Taylor Rupe

Co-founder & Editor (B.S. Computer Science, Oregon State • B.A. Psychology, University of Washington)

Taylor combines technical expertise in computer science with a deep understanding of human behavior and learning. His dual background drives Hakia's mission: leveraging technology to build authoritative educational resources that help people make better decisions about their academic and career paths.